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writer, he was a major source for Shakespeare and is the origin of many of the best-known descriptions of the Roman
emperors.
Tacitus, Publius Cornelius (c. 56 120): Roman historian whose Annals and Histories document the upheavals of imperial
rule between the death of Augustus and the advent of Vespasian. He is particularly unsparing on the corruption of the Roman
upper classes and enjoys inverting the moral relationship between the feckless aristocrats and noble-spirited commoners and
barbarians.
Thucydides (c. 460 c. 404 B.C.): Historian of and firsthand participant in the Peloponnesian War. His history of the war
illustrates the folly of both the Athenians and the Spartans, first in betraying the freedoms they had protected from the Persian
invasion and then in exhausting each other in fruitless warfare.
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Toynbee, Arnold Joseph (1889 1975): Graduate of Oxford, professor of Byzantine and modern Greek at the University of
London, and later director of studies at the Royal Institute of International Affairs. Like Spengler, he attempted to construct a
typology of the historical development of civilizations, but without Spengler s rigidity.
Turner, Frederick Jackson (1861 1932): Graduate of the University of Wisconsin with a Ph.D. from Johns Hopkins
University, he promoted the  frontier thesis, which argued that the ever-westward movement of the frontier had always
offered Americans a chance to recapture the life of unrestricted freedom but was now coming to an end with the official
 closing of the frontier in 1890.
Valla, Lorenzo (1407 1457): Italian Renaissance philologist and state official, he was best known for his sensational
application of his mastery of classical Latin to demonstrate that the Donation of Constantine was a forgery from the 8th
century.
Vico, Giambattista (1668 1744): Italian lawyer and rhetorician, he devised a series of stages, based on literary and legal
usage, to form a historical typology of civilizations. He is a forerunner of both Kant and Comte in using certain cultural
benchmarks as a means for identifying historical periods.
William of Malmesbury (c. 1095 c. 1143): English monk whose Gesta Regum Anglorum, Gesta Pontificum Anglorum, and
unfinished Historia Novella are the principal English historical narratives of the Middle Ages.
Xenophon (c. 430 c. 350 B.C.): Athenian aristocrat who joined a Greek mercenary company under Cyrus the Younger and
chronicled the lengthy retreat the Greeks executed to the Black Sea in order to extricate themselves from Asia Minor.
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Bibliography
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